Particles for cell targeting

ABSTRACT

Provided is a composition that includes oblate spheroidal particles comprising an active agent, such as a therapeutic or imaging agent, and a method for treating or monitoring a physiological condition, such as a disease, by administering the composition to a subject in need thereof. Also provided are methods for making particles that have a volume that can enhance the particles&#39; adhesion to a target site in a subject&#39;s body for a pre-selected shape of the particles and methods for making particles that have a shape that can enhance particles&#39; adhesion to a target site in a subject&#39;s body for a pre-selected volume of the particles.

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

The present application claims the benefit under 35 U.S.C. § 119(e) of U.S. provisional patent application No. 60/829,075 “Particles for Cell Targeting” filed Oct. 11, 2006 to Paolo Decuzzi and Mauro Ferrari, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.

FIELD

The present inventions generally relate to the targeted delivery of therapeutic and/or imaging agents and, more specifically, to micro or nanoparticles, methods of making such particles and methods of using such particles for a targeted delivery of therapeutic and/or imaging agents.

BACKGROUND

Micro or nanoparticles with different compositions and chemico-physical properties can be used for delivery of active agents, such as therapeutic or imaging agents, see e.g. LaVan D. A., et al. Small-scale systems for in vivo drug delivery. Nat. Biotechnol. 2003; 21:1184-91; and Ferrari M. Curr. Opin. Chem. Biol. 2005; 9:343-6. Examples of such micro or nanoparticles include nanospheres, where a pay-load, such as drug molecules or imaging agents, is dispersed within a polymer matrix, see e.g. Duncan R. Nat. Rev. Drug Discov. 2003; 2:347-60; multilayered nano/microcapsules and liposomes, where the pay-load is contained in the internal capsule, see e.g. Crommelin D. J. A., Schreier H., Liposomes, pp. 73-190, in: Colloidal drug delivery systems, Kreuter J., editor, New York: Marcel Dekker, 1994; and nanoporous Si particles, where the pay-load binds to the pores surface, see e.g. Cohen M. H., et al. Biomed. Microdev. 2003; 5:253-9.

One of the advantages of micro or nanoparticles over free molecules administration may be their multifunctionality and engineerability. For example, micro or nanoparticles can carry a high load of therapeutic agent, which can be released with a precise dosage and scheduling, thus improving the efficacy and specificity of the therapy. The micro or nanoparticles can carry both therapeutic and imaging agents, so that the latter can allow monitoring the evolution of a disease or a physiological condition, such as a cancerous tumor, in vivo upon a therapeutic treatment. Surfaces of the micro or nanoparticles can have targeting moieties, such as ligands of different types that can increase the likelihood of specific recognition of the particles by a target site.

To execute its diagnostic and/or therapeutic mission, a micro or nanoparticle has to adhere firmly to one or more cells of a target site, such as a damaged cell. The firm adherence may be particularly important for targeting a vasculature site, as in such a case the adhesive interaction has to counteract the hemodynamic forces exerted over the particle by the flowing blood tending to dislodge the particle away from the surface of the target site, see e.g. Neri D., Bicknell R. Nat. Cancer Rev. 2005. Thus, a need exists to develop micro or nanoparticles with an enhanced adherence to a target site.

SUMMARY

One embodiment of the invention provides a method of treating or monitoring a physiological condition comprising administering to a subject in need thereof a composition comprising oblate spheroidal particles comprising an effective amount of at least one active agent.

Another embodiment of the invention provides a composition comprising oblate spheroidal particles comprising at least one active agent.

In yet another embodiment, a method is provided comprising (A) selecting a target site having a surface, said surface has one or more first moieties; (B) selecting second moieties complementary to the first moieties; (C) selecting a shape defined by one or more shape parameters; (D) determining a volume maximizing an adherence to the target site based on (i) the selected one or more shape parameters; (ii) one or more parameters of interaction between the first moieties and the second moieties; and (iii) a surface density of the first moieties on the targeted site; and (E) fabricating a particle, that has a shape that is substantially the selected shape and a volume, that is substantially the determined volume; and (F) disposing the second moieties on a surface of the particle.

And in yet another embodiment, a method is provided comprising (A) selecting a target site having a surface, said surface has one or more first moieties; (B) selecting a volume; (C) selecting second moieties complementary to said first moiety; (D) determining a shape maximizing an adherence to the target site based on (i) the selected volume; (ii) parameters of interaction between the first moieties and the second moieties; and (iii) a density of the first moiety of the surface on the target site; (E) fabricating a particle, that has a shape, that is substantially the determined shape, and a volume, that is substantially the selected volume; and (F) disposing the second moieties on a surface of the particle.

DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 schematically depicts a spheroidal particle adhered to an endothelial substrate through a ligand-receptor bond.

FIG. 2 presents plots of a dimensionless adhesion probability {tilde over (P)}_(a) as a function of volume V for several pre-selected values of a spheroidal particle's aspect ratio γ(=1, 3, 5, 7 and 9) for m_(r)=10¹⁴ m⁻²; μS=1 Pa; λ=10⁻¹⁰ m; h₀=10⁻⁸ m; δ_(eq)=5×10⁻⁹ m. A value of volume corresponding to a maximum in {tilde over (P)}_(a) is the maximizing volume V_(opt) for a particular pre-selected value of γ.

FIG. 3 presents plots of a dimensionless adhesion probability {tilde over (P)}_(a) as a function of a spheroidal particle's aspect ratio γ for several pre-selected values of volume V ranging from 0.1 to 1 μm³ with a step of 0.10 μm³ for μS=0.5 Pa; λ=10⁻¹⁰ m; h₀=10⁻⁸ m. A value of aspect ratio corresponding to a maximum in {tilde over (P)}_(a) is the maximizing aspect ratio γ_(opt) for a particular pre-selected value of V.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION Definitions

Unless otherwise specified “a” or “an” means one or more.

“Microparticle” refers to a particle having a maximum characteristic size from 1 micron to 1000 microns, or, in some embodiments the range is from 1 micron to 100 microns as specifically specified.

“Nanoparticle” refers to a particle having a maximum characteristic size of less than 1 micron.

“Oblate spheroidal particle” means a particle that has substantially a spheroidal shape with an aspect ratio γ more than 1. For the definition of the aspect ratio γ, see below.

“Biodegradable” refers to a material that can dissolve or degrade in a physiological medium or a biocompatible polymeric material that can be degraded under physiological conditions by physiological enzymes and/or chemical conditions.

OVERVIEW

The following research articles and patent documents, which are all incorporated herein in their entirety, may be useful for understanding this disclosure:

-   1) P. Decuzzi and M. Ferrari. The adhesive strength of non-spherical     particles mediated by specific interactions, Biomaterials 27 (2006)     5307-5314; -   2) P. Decuzzi et al. A Theoretical Model for the Margination of     Particles within Blood Vessels, Annals of Biomedical Engineering     33 (2005) 179-190; -   3) P. Decuzzi et al. The Effective Dispersion of Nanovectors Within     the Tumor Microvasculature, Annals of Biomedical Engineering     34 (2006) 633-641; -   4) P. Decuzzi et al. The Adhesion of Microfabricated Particles on     Vascular Endothelium: Parametric Analysis, Annals of Biomedical     Engineering 32 (2004) 793-802; -   5) U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/836,004 filed Aug. 8, 2007 to     Ferrari; -   6) PCT application No. PCT/US2006/03986 filed Sep. 27, 2006 to     Decuzzi and Ferrari.

The inventors have recognized that particles having an oblate spheroidal shape can adhere to endothelial cells more firmly than spherical particles. Accordingly, embodiments of the invention provide a composition that includes oblate spheroidal particles comprising an active agent, such as a therapeutic or imaging agent, and a method for treating or monitoring a physiological condition, such as a disease, by administering to a subject such as a mammal, preferably human, such a composition. Administering of oblate spheroidal particles may reduce the effective amount of the active agent for treating or monitoring the physiological condition compared to administering of particles having other shapes, such as spherical particles. Although the composition may also contain additional particles that do not have an oblate spheroidal shape, preferably the oblate spheroidal particle constitute at least 20% or at least 30% or at least 40% or at least 50% or at least 60% or at least 70% or at least 80% or at least 90% of the total number of particles in the composition. In some embodiments, substantially all of the particles in the composition are oblate spheroidal particles.

In some embodiments, the average aspect ratio of the oblate spheroidal particles is substantially equal to an adhesion enhancing or maximizing aspect ratio γ_(opt) for the average volume of the oblate spheroidal particles. The determination of the adhesion maximizing aspect ratio γ_(opt) for a given volume of an oblate spheroidal particle is discussed below.

Also, the average aspect ratio of the oblate spheroidal particles may be such that the maximum characteristic size of the particles a, which is the half-length of the longer axis of the spheroid, is substantially smaller than an average radius r of capillaries at a body site targeted by the composition. Preferably, the maximum characteristic size of the particles is at least 2 times or at least 4 times smaller than the average capillary radius at the targeted body site. The volume V, the maximum characteristic size and the aspect ratio of spheroidal particles are related according to the following equation: $\gamma = {\frac{4\quad\pi\quad a^{3}}{3\quad V}.}$ From this equation, one can easily determine γ_(max) that satisfies the above relationship between the maximum characteristic size of the particles and the average radius of capillaries at the targeted body site. When γ_(max) is smaller than γ_(opt) for the average volume of the particles, one can use particles that have an average aspect ratio substantially equal to γ_(max).

The physiological condition that can be monitored or treated by oblate spheroidal particles may be any condition, which requires targeted delivery. For example, the physiological condition may be a disease, such as cancer or an inflammation.

The present inventors have also discovered that a micro or nanoparticle having a particular shape can have a volume that may enhance or maximize an adherence of the particle to a particular target site. Also, the inventors have discovered that a micro or nanoparticle having a particular volume may have a shape that may enhance or maximize an adherence of the particle to a particular target site.

Thus, embodiments of the present invention provide methods of making or designing micro or nanoparticles that can have an enhanced adherence to cells of a target site. According to one embodiment, one can (A) select a shape defined by one or more shape parameters, (B) select a target site having a surface that has one or more first moieties on it; (C) select second moieties complementary to the first moieties, (D) determine a volume maximizing adherence to the target site based on (i) the selected shape, (ii) parameters of interaction of the first moieties and the second moieties and (iii) a surface density of the first moieties on the target site; (E) fabricate a particle that has a shape that is substantially the selected shape and a volume that is substantially the determined volume and then (E) dispose the second moieties on the surface of the particle. According to another embodiment, one can (A) select a volume; (B) select a target site having a surface that has one or more first moieties on it; (C) select second moieties complementary to first moieties; (D) determine a shape maximizing an adherence to the target site defined by one or more shape parameters based on (i) the selected volume, (ii) parameters of interaction of the first moieties and the second moieties and (iii) a surface density of the first moieties on the target site; (E) fabricate a particle that has a shape that is substantially the determined shape and a volume that is substantially the selected volume and then (E) dispose the second moieties on the surface of the particle. One can select a particular volume for a particle based on a target load of an active agent desired to be delivered to the target site.

In many embodiments, the selected target site is a vasculature site, such as a coopted vasculature; an angiogenic vasculature or a renormalized vasculature and the first moieties are molecular receptors on the vasculature site. For instance, for a coopted vasculature, the first moieties may be angiopoietin 2 receptors; for an angiogenic vasculature, the first moieties may be vascular endothelial growth factors (VEGF), basic fibroblast growth factors or endothelial markers, such as α_(v)β₃ integrins; for renormalized vasculature, the first moieties may be carcinoembionic-related cell adhesion molecules 1 (CEACAM1), endothelin-B receptor (ET-B), vascular endothelial growth factor inhibitors gravin/AKAP12, scaffolding proteins for protein kinase A and protein kinase C.

A surface density on the first moieties may be determined using methods known to those of ordinary skill in the art. For example, when the first moieties are molecular receptors, one can determine their surface density in vivo by using radiolabeled monoclonal antibodies complimentary to the receptors as discussed for intercellular adhesion molecule 1 receptors in Panes J., et al. Am. J. Physiol. 1995; 269(6Pt2):H1955-64. Alternatively, a surface density may be determined using fluorescently labeled monoclonal antibodies complementary to the receptors. Such fluorescently labeled monoclonal antibodies may be, for example, antibodies labeled with phycoerythrin as disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 4,520,110.

The second moieties can be selected to be complementary to the first moieties, i.e. the second moieties are capable to bind the first moiety. For example, for molecular receptors on a targeted vasculature site the second moieties may be antibodies, aptamers or ligands capable to bind the receptors.

A maximum of an adhesion strength of the particle to a target site can correspond to a maximum of a dimensionless adhesion probability ${{\overset{\sim}{P}}_{a} = {A_{C}{\exp\left\lbrack {- \frac{\lambda\quad f}{k_{n}T}} \right\rbrack}}},$ where A_(C) is an area of interaction between the micro or nanoparticle and the target site; λ is a characteristic length of a bond between the first moieties and the second moieties, e.g. a ligand-receptor bond, f is a force per one first moiety/second moiety pair, e.g. ligand-receptor pair; k_(B) is the Boltzmann constant; and T is an absolute temperature of the target site expressed in Kelvins. Thus, the adherence maximizing volume can be a volume, for which {tilde over (P)}_(a) has a maximum for a preselected shape; while the adherence maximizing shape is a shape, for which {tilde over (P)}_(a) has a maximum for a preselected volume.

The following disclosure illustrates determining the adherence maximizing volume and the adherence maximizing shape for a spheroidal micro or nanoparticle, however, it should be understood that similar methods may be applied for a non-spheroidal particle as well.

Spheroidal Particle

FIG. 1 illustrates a spheroidal particle having a ligand surface density m_(l) adhered to a target site, that is an endothelial substrate having a surface density of receptor molecules m_(r).

For such a spheroidal particle, selecting one or more shape parameters of the particle means selecting a particular aspect ratio γ=a/b, where a and b the half lengths of two distinct axes of the spheroidal particle described in Cartesian coordinates as ${{\frac{x^{2} + y^{2}}{a^{2}} + \frac{z^{2}}{b^{2}}} = 1},$ where z is the axis of rotational symmetry. The volume of the spheroidal particle is related to the aspect ratio as follows: $V = {\frac{4}{3}\pi\quad a^{3}{\gamma^{- 1}.}}$

The area of interaction A_(C) can be estimated for a spheroidal particle as πr₀ ², where r₀ is a radius of a circular section of the spheroidal particle located at a separation distance h₀ from a surface of the targeted site, where h₀ is a maximum distance, at which a specific bond between the first moiety, such as one or more molecular receptors, and the second moiety, such as one or more ligands, can still occur. πr₀ ² can be estimated as follows: ${{\pi\quad r_{0}^{2}} = {\pi\quad{a^{2}\left\lbrack {1 - \left( {1 - {\frac{h_{0} - \delta_{eq}}{a}\gamma}} \right)^{2}} \right\rbrack}}},$ where δ_(eq) is a separation distance between the micro or nanoparticle and a surface of the targeting site, such as an endothelial substrate. FIG. 1 illustrates parameters A_(C), r₀, δ_(eq) and h₀.

The force f per unit ligand-receptor bond may be expressed as a ratio between a total dislodging force F_(dis) and the area of interaction A_(C) multiplied by the surface density of the first moieties, such as molecular receptors, m_(r), i.e. f=F_(dis)/(m_(r)A_(C)).

The total dislodging force F_(dis) can include two components: one related to a drag force F along a direction of the flow in a blood vessel containing the target site and the other related to a torque T exerted by the blood flow on the particle, see FIG. 1. For a spheroidal particle, the total dislodging force F_(dis) can be written as follows: F _(dis) =F+2T/r ₀=6πa(aγ ⁻¹+δ_(eq))μSF ^(S)+8πa ³ μST ^(S) /r ₀, where μ is the dynamic blood viscosity and S is the blood shear rate, F^(S) and T^(S) are coefficients, which can be estimated for spheroidal and other non-spherical particles by interpolating the numerical results disclosed in Pozrikidis C. The motion of particles in the Hele-Shaw cell. J. Fluid. Mech. 1994; 261:199-222, incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. Thus, for a spheroidal particle, F^(S) and T^(S) may be written as F ^(S)=1+(1.736−0.138γ+0.128γ²+0.09γ³)e ^(−γ); T ^(S)=1+(−20.50+46.50γ−35.10γ²+8.95γ³)e ^(−γ).

For a spheroidal particle, a dimensionless adhesion probability may be written as follows: ${\overset{\sim}{P}}_{a} = {\pi\quad r_{0}^{2}{{\exp\left\lbrack {{- {\frac{\lambda\quad}{k_{B}T}\left\lbrack {{6\left( {{a\quad\gamma^{- 1}} + \delta_{eq}} \right)F^{S}} + {8\frac{a^{2}}{r_{0}}T^{S}}} \right\rbrack}}\frac{a}{r_{0}^{2}}\frac{\mu\quad S}{m_{r}}} \right\rbrack}.}}$

To determine the adherence maximizing volume V_(opt) for a pre-selected γ, one can differentiate {tilde over (P)}_(a) with respect to a and find a_(opt) that sets the first derivative of {tilde over (P)}_(a) with respect to a equal to 0 using, for example, numerical or graphical methods. The volume V_(opt) is related to a_(opt) as follows: $V_{opt} = {\frac{4}{3}\pi\quad a_{opt}^{3}{\gamma^{- 1}.}}$

Similarly, to determine the adherence maximizing parameter γ_(opt), one can differentiate {tilde over (P)}_(a) with respect to γ and find γ_(opt) that sets the first derivative of {tilde over (P)}_(a) with respect to γ equal to 0 using, for example, numerical or graphical methods.

FIG. 2 presents plots of a dimensionless adhesion probability {tilde over (P)}_(a) as a function of volume V for several preselected values of a spheroidal particle's aspect ratio γ(=1, 3, 5, 7 and 9) for m_(r)=10¹⁴ m⁻²; μS=1 Pa; λ=10⁻¹⁰ m; h₀=10⁻⁸ m; δ_(eq)=5×10⁻⁹ m. A value of volume corresponding to a maximum in {tilde over (P)}_(a) is the adherence maximizing volume V_(opt) for a particular pre-selected value of γ.

FIG. 3 presents plots of a dimensionless adhesion probability {tilde over (P)}_(a) as a function of a spheroidal particle's aspect ratio γ for several pre-selected values of volume V ranging from 0.1 to 1 μm³ with a step of 0.1 μm³ for μS=0.5 Pa; λ=10⁻¹⁰ m; h₀=10⁻⁸ m. A value of aspect ratio corresponding to a maximum in {tilde over (P)}_(a) is the adherence maximizing aspect ratio γ_(opt) for a particular pre-selected value of V.

One can determine numerical values of V_(opt) or γ_(opt) prior to fabricating of the particle as all the parameters in the expression {tilde over (P)}_(a) based on the selected target site and its properties and parameters of interaction between the first moieties and the second moieties.

For example, for the blood viscosity μ one can use an average value of 10⁻³ Pa s for a human or alternatively one can determine a value of the blood viscosity experimentally from plasma viscosity determined with a glass capillary viscometer, hematocrit and mean wall share rate as disclosed in Weaver J. P. et al. Clin. Sci. 36: 1-10, 1969 and Dammers R., et al. J. Appl. Physiol. 94:485-489, 2003, which are both incorporated herein by reference in their entirety, while the blood share rate S can be assessed non-invasively in vivo with an ultrasound system as described in Dammers R., et al. J. Appl. Physiol. 94:485-489, 2003. Table 1 provides typical numbers of blood share rate for selected blood vessels in humans TABLE 1 Vessel μS, Pa Aorta 2.5 Artery 5 Arteriole 7.5 Capillary 10 Venules 0.2 Vein 0.5 Vena cava 1

h₀, a maximum distance, at which a specific bond between the first moiety, such as a molecular receptor, and the second moiety, such as a ligand, may still occur, may be controlled by, for example, changing a length of a linker part of the second moiety.

λ, a characteristic length of a bond between the first moiety and the second moiety, can depend on the first moieties on the targeted surface and the selected second moieties. For example, when the first moiety is a molecular receptor and the second moiety is a ligand, λ can be defined as in Dembo, M., D. C. Torney, K. Saxaman, and D. Hammer. 1988. The reaction-limited kinetics of membrane-to-surface adhesion and detachment. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B. 234:55-83, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. For typical receptor-ligand pairs, λ can be around 1 Å.

δ_(eq), a separation distance between the micro or nanoparticle and a surface of the target site, such as an endothelial substrate in FIG. 1, can be obtained by solving the following equation with respect to δ using, for example, numerical or graphical methods: ${\frac{A\quad a^{2}}{k_{B}T\quad 12\quad\pi\quad\delta} + {\frac{64\quad\rho_{\infty}a^{2}}{\kappa}z_{v}z_{c}{\mathbb{e}}^{{- \kappa}\quad\delta}} - {36\quad\Gamma\quad a^{2}{\mathbb{e}}^{{- \delta}/R_{g}}}} = 0.$

In the above equation, A is a Hamacker constant, which may be estimated using the following formula: ${A \approx {{\frac{3}{4}k_{B}{T\left( \frac{ɛ_{1} - ɛ_{3}}{ɛ_{1} + ɛ_{3}} \right)}\left( \frac{ɛ_{2} - ɛ_{3}}{ɛ_{2} + ɛ_{3}} \right)} + {\frac{3\quad h}{4\quad\pi}{\int_{v_{1}}^{\infty}{\left( \frac{{ɛ_{1}({\mathbb{i}v})} - {ɛ_{3}\left( {{\mathbb{i}}\quad v} \right)}}{{ɛ_{1}\left( {{\mathbb{i}}\quad v} \right)} + {ɛ_{3}\left( {{\mathbb{i}}\quad v} \right)}} \right)\quad\left( \frac{{ɛ_{2}\left( {{\mathbb{i}}\quad v} \right)} - {ɛ_{3}\left( {{\mathbb{i}}\quad v} \right)}}{{ɛ_{2}\left( {{\mathbb{i}}\quad v} \right)} + {ɛ_{3}\left( {{\mathbb{i}}\quad v} \right)}} \right){\mathbb{d}v}}}}}},$ where ∈₁, ∈₂ and ∈₃ are static (DC) dielectric constants of the particle, endothelial cells and the liquid component of the blood (plasma), respectively; ∈₁(iv), ∈₂(iv) and ∈₃(iv) are values dielectric functions at imaginary frequencies for the particle, endothelial cells and the liquid component of the blood (plasma), respectively; ν₁=2πk_(B)T/h, h is Planck's constant. The dielectric functions and constants can be evaluated using dielectric spectroscopy as disclosed in C. Prodan, F. Mayo, J. R. Claycomb, and J. H. Miller, Jr., M. J. Benedik, Low-frequency, low-field dielectric spectroscopy of living cell suspensions, Journal of Applied Physics—Apr. 1, 2004—Volume 95, Issue 7, pp. 3754-3756, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. A typical value for the Hamaker constant in liquids is around 10⁻²⁰ Joules, see e.g. Israelachvili, J. 1992, Intermolecular and Surface Forces, 2nd ed. Academic Press, New York.

ρ_(∞) is the ionic concentration of blood. A typical value for the ionic concentration for blood can be around 150 mM, see, for example, Ganong, W. F. Review of Medical Physiology, 21st ed. New York: Lange Medical Books/McGraw-Hill Medical Publishing Division, 2003.

κ⁻¹ is the Debye length, i.e. a length over, which mobile charge carriers (e.g. electrons) can screen out electric fields. Generally, in an electrolyte, such as blood, the Debye length may be determined using the following formula: $\kappa^{- 1} = \sqrt{\frac{ɛ_{0}ɛ_{r}k_{B}T}{2\quad N_{A}{\mathbb{e}}^{2}I},}$ where ∈₀ is the permittivity of free space, ∈_(r) is a dielectric constant of the electrolyte, k_(B) is Boltzmann's constant, T is the absolute temperature, e is the charge on an electron, I is the ionic strength of the electrolyte, N_(A) is Avogadro's Number. For blood, the Debye length can be around 0.8 nm.

Γ is the number of polymer chains per unit area. Γ=s⁻², where s is the mean separation distance s between two adjacent chains on the surface of the nanoparticle. The separation distance s depends on the size of the functional groups at the nanoparticle surface and on the size of the polymer chains (molecular weight) conjugated to the functional groups. The separation distance s may be estimated by citofluorimetric exams, see for example Jacob N. Israelachvili, Intermolecular and Surface Forces, Second Edition: With Applications to Colloidal and Biological Systems, Academic Press; II Edition, 1992.

R_(g) is a radius of gyration of a polymer, such as a ligand. R_(g) can be related to the number N of repeat units of the polymer forming a chain of the polymer and the effective length of the repeat unit, l. R_(g) can also depend on the polymer's solvent. For an ideal solution, i.e. a solution, where the interaction (attractive repulsive) between the repeat units of the polymers is negligible, $R_{g} = {l{\sqrt{\frac{N}{6}}.}}$ For a “good” solvent, i.e. a solvent with repulsion between the segments, R_(g)=lN^(3/5); for a “bad” solvent, i.e. a solvent with attractive interaction between the repeat units, R_(g)=lN^(1/3), see e.g. Jacob N. Israelachvili, Intermolecular and Surface Force: With Applications to Colloidal and Biological Systems, Academic Press; Second Edition, 1992. The liquid component of blood (plasma) is an aqueous solution and water is a good solvent for PEG polymers.

z_(v) and z_(c) are electrostatic surface potentials at the surface of the particle and at the surface of the target site respectively. ∈_(v) and ∈_(c) can be estimated using Zetasizer™ Nano series instrument from Malvern Instruments, Worcestershire United Kingdom.

Fabrication

Upon determining the adherence maximizing volume for the pre-selected shape, one can fabricate the particle that has a volume that is substantially the adherence maximizing volume and a shape substantially determined by the one or more pre-selected shape parameters. Similarly upon determining the adherence maximizing shape parameter for the pre-selected volume, one can fabricate the particle that has a volume that is substantially the pre-selected volume and a shape substantially determined by the adherence maximizing shape parameter. The fabricated particle can be then decorated with the second moieties.

For the volume, the term “substantially” means that the volume is as close to the pre-selected or the determined volume as the particular fabrication method permits. Thus, the fabricated volume may be within ±30% or within ±20% or within ±10% or within ±5% or within ±3% of the pre-selected volume or the determined volume.

For the shape, the term “substantially” means that the shape is as close to the pre-selected or the determined shape as the particular fabrication process permits. For example, for spheroidal particles, the fabricated aspect ratio can be within ±30% or within ±20% or within ±10% or within ±5% or within ±3% or within ±1% of the pre-selected or determined aspect ratio.

The particle(s) can be fabricated by any of a variety of methods. In some embodiments, the particle(s) are fabricated as detailed in van Dillen T., van Blaaderen A., Polman A. Ion beam shaping of colloidal assemblies. Mater. Today 2004:40-6, incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. This technique can be used for transforming spherical silica particles into oblate spheroids and ellipsoids.

In some embodiments, the particle(s) is fabricated as a gas bubble or a liquid drop that can exist in a stable non-spherical shape as disclosed in Subramaniam A. B., Abkarian M., Mahadevan L., Stone H. A. Nonspherical bubbles. Nature 2005; 438:930, incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.

In some embodiments, the particle(s) are fabricated using particle replication in non-wetting templates (PRINT) technique detailed, for example, in Rolland J. P., Maynor B. W., Euliss L. E., Exner A. E., Denison G. M., DeSimone J. Direct fabrication and harvesting of monodisperse, shape specific nano-biomaterials. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2005; 127:10096-100, incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. This technique is extremely versatile and flexible and enables fabrication of particles with a simultaneous control over shape, size, composition, cargo and surface structure.

In some embodiments, the particle(s) is fabricated by a top-down microfabrication or nanofabrication methods, such as photolithography, electron beam lithography, X-ray lithography, deep UV lithography or nanoprint lithography. One potential advantage of using the top-down fabrication methods is that such methods make possible a scaled up production of particles that are uniform in dimensions.

Upon the fabrication, the second moieties, such as ligands, may be disposed on the surface of the particle. For example, ligands may be chemically linked to appropriate reactive groups on the surface of the particle. Protein ligands may be linked to amino- and thiol-reactive groups under conditions effective to form thioether or amide bonds respectively. Methods for attaching antibody or other polymer binding agents to an inorganic or polymeric support are detailed, for example, in Taylor, R., Ed., Protein Immobilization Fundamentals and Applications, pp. 109110 (1991). Preferably, the second moieties are disposed in such a way that their surface density is higher than the surface density of the first moieties on the target site.

In some embodiments, the fabricated particle has a body defined by a volume and a shape of the particle and one or more reservoirs inside the body, where one or more active agents may be loaded.

In some embodiments, the particle has one or more channels connecting the reservoir with the surface. In some embodiments, the reservoir and the channels are pores in the body of the particle. In such case, the particle may comprise either a porous or nanoporous material. The pores of the porous or nanoporous material may be controlled to achieve a desired load of the active agent and a desired release rate. The nanoporous material with controllable pore size may be an oxide material, such as SiO₂, Al₂O₃, or TiO₂. Fabrication of nanoporous oxide particles, also known as sol gel particles, is detailed, for example, in Paik J. A. et. al. J. Mater. Res., Vol. 17, August 2002, incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. The nanoporous material with controllable pore size may also be nanoporous silicon. For details of fabrication of nanoporous silicon particles, see Cohen M. H. et. al. Biomedical Microdevices 5:3, 253-259, 2003.

Yet in some embodiments, the particle has no channels at all. Such a particle may comprise, for example, a biodegradable material. For example, the particle may be formed of metals, such as iron, titanium, gold, silver, platinum, copper, and alloys and oxides thereof. The biodegradable material may also be a biodegradable polymer, such as polyorthoesters, polyanhydrides, polyamides, polyalkylcyanoacrylates, polyphosphazenes, and polyesters. Exemplary biodegradable polymers are described, for example, in U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,933,185, 4,888,176, and 5,010,167. Specific examples of such biodegradable polymer materials include poly(lactic acid), polyglycolic acid, polycaprolactone, polyhydroxybutyrate, poly(N-palmitoyl-trans-4-hydroxy-L-proline ester) and poly(DTH carbonate).

In some embodiments, the fabricated particle is an active agent per se.

Loading Active Agent

In some embodiments, methods of the invention further comprise loading particle with an active agent. The particular loading technique may depend on the composition of the particle. For example, one can soak the particles fabricated from a nanoporous material in a solution containing a carrying fluid and the active agent, which may enter pores of the earlier stage particle via capillary action. The carrying fluid may be a liquid that is biologically non-harmful and that is neutral with respect to the active agent. An example of the carrying fluid is phosphate buffer saline (PBS) or a deionized water. To maximize a load of the active agent, one may, for example, use a solution that has a saturated concentration of the active agent.

The solution containing the active agent is degassed prior to the introduction of the particles. Then, the particles are submerged in the degassed solution in a sealed chamber. The particles are subjected to reduced pressure to ensure that trapped air is forced from the pores in the particles. Then the particles are fully immersed in the solution and the pressure in the sealed chamber is elevated slightly above atmospheric to make sure that the solution enters the pores of the particles. The particles are then be trapped on a filter and dried using one of the three methods described below.

To remove any trapped air within the reservoirs in the submerged particles, the pressure within the chamber is reduced, and then raised slightly above atmospheric pressure.

After filling the solution into the pores of the particles, drying is achieved by one or more of the following three methods. Water is removed by evaporation under reduced pressure in a vacuum chamber, or by passage of a stream of warm air or an inert gas such as nitrogen over the surface particles collected on a filter, or by freeze drying. In the case of freeze drying, a flat heat exchanger is placed in good thermal contact, e.g. directly below, the filter, on which the earlier stage particles have been collected. Refrigerant fluid at temperatures ranging from −20° C. to −60° C., such as Freon, or a cold liquid, such as liquid nitrogen, may be passed through the heat exchanger flowing into port and passing out port in order to freeze any water remaining within the pores. The pressure is then reduced until all the water sublimes.

Active Agent

The active agent is a therapeutic compound or an imaging moiety. The active agent may be any appropriate agent. In some embodiments, the active agent is fabricated as a particle. In some embodiments, the active agent is an agent that can be released from a particle incorporating it. The selection of the active agent depends on the application.

The therapeutic agent may be any physiologically or pharmacologically active substance that can produce a desired biological effect in a targeted site in a subject, such as a mammal or a human. The therapeutic agent may be any inorganic or organic compound, without limitation, including peptides, proteins, nucleic acids, and small molecules, any of which may be characterized or uncharacterized. The therapeutic agent may be in various forms, such as an unchanged molecule, molecular complex, pharmacologically acceptable salt, such as hydrochloride, hydrobromide, sulfate, laurate, palmitate, phosphate, nitrite, nitrate, borate, acetate, maleate, tartrate, oleate, salicylate, and the like. For acidic therapeutic agent, salts of metals, amines or organic cations, for example, quaternary ammonium, may be used. Derivatives of drugs, such as bases, esters and amides may also be used as a therapeutic agents. A therapeutic agent that is water insoluble can be used in a form that is a water soluble derivative thereof, or as a base derivative thereof, which in either instance, or by its delivery, is converted by enzymes, hydrolyzed by the body pH, or by other metabolic processes to the original therapeutically active form.

The therapeutic agent may be a chemotherapeutic agent, an immunosuppressive agent, a cytokine, a cytotoxic agent, a nucleolytic compound, a radioactive isotope, a receptor, or a pro-drug activating enzyme, which may be naturally occurring or produced by synthetic or recombinant methods, or any combination thereof.

Drugs that are affected by classical multidrug resistance, such as vinca alkaloids (e.g., vinblastine and vincristine), the anthracyclines (e.g., doxorubicin and daunorubicin), RNA transcription inhibitors (e.g., actinomycin-D) and microtubule stabilizing drugs (e.g., paclitaxel) can have particular utility as the therapeutic agent.

A cancer chemotherapy agent is a preferred therapeutic agent. Useful cancer chemotherapy drugs include nitrogen mustards, nitrosorueas, ethyleneimine, alkane sulfonates, tetrazine, platinum compounds, pyrimidine analogs, purine analogs, antimetabolites, folate analogs, anthracyclines, taxanes, vinca alkaloids, topoisomerase inhibitors and hormonal agents. Exemplary chemotherapy drugs are Actinomycin-D, Alkeran, Ara-C, Anastrozole, Asparaginase, BiCNU, Bicalutamide, Bleomycin, Busulfan, Capecitabine, Carboplatin, Carboplatinum, Carmustine, CCNU, Chlorambucil, Cisplatin, Cladribine, CPT-11, Cyclophosphamide, Cytarabine, Cytosine arabinoside, Cytoxan, Dacarbazine, Dactinomycin, Daunorubicin, Dexrazoxane, Docetaxel, Doxorubicin, DTIC, Epirubicin, Ethyleneimine, Etoposide, Floxuridine, Fludarabine, Fluorouracil, Flutamide, Fotemustine, Gemcitabine, Herceptin, Hexamethylamine, Hydroxyurea, Idarubicin, Ifosfamide, Irinotecan, Lomustine, Mechlorethamine, Melphalan, Mercaptopurine, Methotrexate, Mitomycin, Mitotane, Mitoxantrone, Oxaliplatin, Paclitaxel, Pamidronate, Pentostatin, Plicamycin, Procarbazine, Rituximab, Steroids, Streptozocin, STI-571, Streptozocin, Tamoxifen, Temozolomide, Teniposide, Tetrazine, Thioguanine, Thiotepa, Tomudex, Topotecan, Treosulphan, Trimetrexate, Vinblastine, Vincristine, Vindesine, Vinorelbine, VP-16, and Xeloda.

Useful cancer chemotherapy drugs also include alkylating agents, such as Thiotepa and cyclosphosphamide; alkyl sulfonates, such as Busulfan, Improsulfan and Piposulfan; aziridines, such as Benzodopa, Carboquone, Meturedopa, and Uredopa; ethylenimines and methylamelamines including altretamine, triethylenemelamine, trietylenephosphoramide, triethylenethiophosphaoramide and trimethylolomelamine; nitrogen mustards, such as Chlorambucil, Chlomaphazine, Cholophosphamide, Estramustine, Ifosfamide, mechlorethamine, mechlorethamine oxide hydrochloride, Melphalan, Novembiehin, Phenesterine, Prednimustine, Trofosfamide, uracil mustard; nitroureas, such as Cannustine, Chlorozotocin, Fotemustine, Lomustine, Nimustine, and Ranimustine; antibiotics, such as Aclacinomysins, Actinomycin, Authramycin, Azaserine, Bleomycins, Cactinomycin, Calicheamicin, Carabicin, Caminomycin, Carzinophilin, Chromoinycins, Dactinomycin, Daunorubicin, Detorubicin, 6-diazo-5-oxo-L-norleucine, Doxorubicin, Epirubicin, Esorubicin, Idambicin, Marcellomycin, Mitomycins, mycophenolic acid, Nogalamycin, Olivomycins, Peplomycin, Potfiromycin, Puromycin, Quelamycin, Rodorubicin, Streptonigrin, Streptozocin, Tubercidin, Ubenimex, Zinostatin, and Zorubicin; anti-metabolites, such as Methotrexate and 5-fluorouracil (5-FU); folic acid analogues, such as Denopterin, Methotrexate, Pteropterin, and Trimetrexate; purine analogs, such as Fludarabine, 6-mercaptopurine, Thiamiprine, and Thioguanine; pyrimidine analogs, such as Ancitabine, Azacitidine, 6-azauridine, Carmofur, Cytarabine, Dideoxyuridine, Doxifluridine, Enocitabine, Floxuridine, and 5-FU; androgens, such as Calusterone, Dromostanolone Propionate, Epitiostanol, Rnepitiostane, and Testolactone; anti-adrenals such as aminoglutethimide, Mitotane, and Trilostane; folic acid replenisher, such as frolinic acid; aceglatone; aldophosphamide glycoside; aminolevulinic acid; Amsacrine; Bestrabucil; Bisantrene; Edatraxate; Defofamine; Demecolcine; Diaziquone; Elformithine; elliptinium acetate; Etoglucid; gallium nitrate; hydroxyurea; Lentinan; Lonidamine; Mitoguazone; Mitoxantrone; Mopidamol; Nitracrine; Pentostatin; Phenamet; Pirarubicin; podophyllinic acid; 2-ethylhydrazide; Procarbazine; PSK®; Razoxane; Sizofrran; Spirogermanium; tenuazonic acid; triaziquone; 2,2′,2″-trichlorotriethylamine; Urethan; Vindesine; Dacarbazine; Mannomustine; Mitobronitol; Mitolactol; Pipobroman; Gacytosine; Arabinoside (“Ara-C”); cyclophosphamide; thiotEPa; taxoids, e.g., Paclitaxel (TAXOL®, Bristol-Myers Squibb Oncology, Princeton, N.J.) and Doxetaxel (TAXOTERE®, Rhone-Poulenc Rorer, Antony, France); Chlorambucil; Gemcitabine; 6-thioguanine; Mercaptopurine; Methotrexate; platinum analogs such as Cisplatin and Carboplatin; Vinblastine; platinum; etoposide (VP-16); Ifosfamide; Mitomycin C; Mitoxantrone; Vincristine; Vinorelbine; Navelbine; Novantrone; Teniposide; Daunomycin; Aminopterin; Xeloda; Ibandronate; CPT-11; topoisomerase inhibitor RFS 2000; difluoromethylomithine (DMFO); retinoic acid; Esperamicins; Capecitabine; and pharmaceutically acceptable salts, acids or derivatives of any of the above. Also included are anti-hormonal agents that act to regulate or inhibit hormone action on tumors, such as anti-estrogens, including, for example, Tamoxifen, Raloxifene, aromatase inhibiting 4(5)-imidazoles, 4 Hydroxytamoxifen, Trioxifene, Keoxifene, Onapristone, and Toremifene (Fareston); and anti-androgens, such as Flutamide, Nilutamide, Bicalutamide, Leuprolide, and Goserelin; and pharmaceutically acceptable salts, acids or derivatives of any of the above.

Cytokines may also be used as the therapeutic agent. Examples of such cytokines are lymphokines, monokines, and traditional polypeptide hormones. Included among the cytokines are growth hormones, such as human growth hormone, N-methionyl human growth hormone, and bovine growth hormone; parathyroid hormone; thyroxine; insulin; proinsulin; relaxin; prorelaxin; glycoprotein hormones, such as follicle stimulating hormone (FSH), thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH), and luteinizing hormone (LH); hepatic growth factor; fibroblast growth factor; prolactin; placental lactogen; tumor necrosis factor-α and -β; mullerian-inhibiting substance; mouse gonadotropin-associated peptide; inhibin; activin; vascular endothelial growth factor; integrin; thrombopoietin (TPO); nerve growth factors such as NGF-β; platelet growth factor; transforming growth factors (TGFs) such as TGF-α and TGF-β; insulin-like growth factor-I and -II; erythropoietin (EPO); osteoinductive factors; interferons such as interferon-α, -β and -γ; colony stimulating factors (CSFs), such as macrophage-CSF (M-CSF); granulocyte-macrophage-CSF (GM-CSF); and granulocyte-CSF (GCSF); interleukins (ILs) such as IL-1, IL-1a, IL-2, IL-3, IL-4, IL-5, IL-6, IL-7, IL-8, IL-9, IL-11, IL-12, IL-15; a tumor necrosis factor such as TNF-α or TNF-β; and other polypeptide factors, including LIF and kit ligand (KL). As used herein, the term cytokine includes proteins from natural sources or from recombinant cell culture and biologically active equivalents of the native sequence cytokines.

The imaging agent may be any substance that can provide imaging information about a targeted site in a body of an animal, such as a mammal or a human being. The imaging agent may comprise magnetic material, such as iron oxide, for magnetic resonance imaging. For optical imaging, the active agent is, for example, a semiconductor nanocrystal or a quantum dot. For optical coherence tomography imaging, the imaging agent is metal, e.g. gold or silver, nanocage particles. The imaging agent is also an ultrasound contrast agent, such as a micro or nanobubble or iron oxide micro or nanoparticle.

Compositions

Also provided is a composition comprising a plurality of the particles. Such a composition may be a suspension of the particles described above for use in administering a therapeutic or imaging agent to a subject. To form the suspension, the particles can be suspended in an aqueous medium at a selected concentration. The optimal concentration will depend on the characteristics (e.g., solubilization properties) of the particle, type of therapeutic application and mode of administration. For example, compositions for oral administration can be relatively viscous, and may therefore contain a high concentration (e.g., >50%) of the particle. Solutions for bolus injections preferably contain a relatively concentrated suspension of the particles (e.g., 10-50%), but not so concentrated that it has an appreciably higher viscosity than saline (to minimize need for large-bore needles). Solution used for continuous intravenous infusion typically contain a relatively low concentration (e.g., 2-10% suspension) of the particles, due to the relatively large volumes of fluid that are administered.

The particles are suspended in any suitable aqueous carrier vehicle. A suitable pharmaceutical carrier is one that is non-toxic to the recipient at the dosages and concentrations employed and is compatible with other ingredients in the formulation. Examples of suitable carrier vehicles include but are not limited to water, saline, Ringer's solution, dextrose solution, and 5% human serum albumin. Suspensions for use in injectable formulations are preferably isotonic with the subject's blood. Generally, the carrier may contain minor amounts of additives such as substances that enhance isotonicity and chemical stability, e.g., buffers and preservatives, as well as low molecular weight (less than about 10 residues) polypeptides, proteins, amino acids, carbohydrates including glucose or dextrans, chelating agents such as EDTA, or other excipients.

Prior to administration to a subject, the suspension of particles are sterilized by a suitable sterilization method. Particles fabricated from a heat-stable material may be heat-sterilized, e.g., using an autoclave. Particles fabricated from a non-heat-stable material may be sterilized by passage through a commercially-available sterilization filter, e.g., a 0.2 μm filter. Of course, filtration may be used only in cases where the particles is smaller than the pores of the sterilizing filter.

The particles are administered to a subject in need of therapeutic intervention via any suitable administration method. The particular method employed for a specific application is determined by the attending physician. The particles may be administered by one of the following routes: topical, parenteral, inhalation, oral, vaginal and anal. Intravascular administration, which includes intravenous (i.v.), intramuscular (i.m.) and subcutaneous (s.c.) injection, may be particularly preferred.

Intravascular administration may be either local or systemic. Local intravascular delivery may be used to bring the particles in the vicinity of a known lesion by use of guided catheter system, such as a CAT-scan guided catheter. General injection, such as a bolus i.v. injection or continuous/trickle-feed i.v. infusion are typically systemic. Preferably, the particles are injected into the blood stream and allowed to circulate and localize to their target site.

Although the foregoing refers to particular preferred embodiments, it will be understood that the present invention is not so limited. It will occur to those of ordinary skill in the art that various modifications may be made to the disclosed embodiments and that such modifications are intended to be within the scope of the present invention.

All of the publications, patent applications and patents cited in this specification are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety.

ADDITIONAL REFERENCES

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1. A method of treating or monitoring a physiological condition comprising administering to a subject in need thereof a composition comprising oblate spheroidal particles comprising an effective amount of at least one active agent.
 2. The method of claim 1, wherein the at least one active agent comprises a therapeutic agent.
 3. The method of claim 1, wherein the at least one active agent comprises an imaging agent.
 4. The method of claim 1, wherein the particles comprise a nanoporous material.
 5. The method of claim 4, wherein the particles comprise a nanoporous oxide material.
 6. The method of claim 5, wherein the particles comprise nanoporous silicon dioxide.
 7. The method of claim 4, wherein the nanoporous material is nanoporous silicon.
 8. The method of claim 1, wherein the particles comprise a biodegradable material.
 9. The method of claim 1, wherein the particles comprise at least one recognition moiety disposed on a surface of the particles.
 10. The method of claim 1, wherein the subject is a mammal.
 11. The method of claim 1, wherein the subject is a human.
 12. A composition comprising oblate spheroidal particles comprising at least one active agent.
 13. The composition of claim 12, wherein the at least one active agent comprises a therapeutic agent.
 14. The composition of claim 12, wherein the at least one active agent comprises an imaging agent.
 15. The composition of claim 12, wherein the particles comprise a nanoporous material.
 16. The composition of claim 15, wherein the particles comprise a nanoporous oxide material.
 17. The composition of claim 16, wherein the particles comprise nanoporous silicon dioxide.
 18. The composition of claim 15, wherein the nanoporous material is nanoporous silicon.
 19. The composition of claim 12, wherein the particles comprise a biodegradable material.
 20. The composition of claim 12, wherein the particles comprise at least one recognition moiety disposed on a surface of the particles.
 21. A method comprising (A) selecting a target site having a surface, said surface has one or more first moieties; (B) selecting second moieties complementary to the first moieties; (C) selecting a shape defined by one or more shape parameters; (D) determining a volume maximizing an adherence to the target site based on (i) the selected one or more shape parameters; (ii) one or more parameters of interaction between the first moieties and the second moieties; and (iii) a surface density of the first moieties on the targeted site; and (E) fabricating a particle, that has a shape that is substantially the selected shape and a volume, that is substantially the determined volume; and (F) disposing the second moieties on a surface of the particle.
 22. The method of claim 21, wherein the target site is a site in a vasculature.
 23. The method of claim 22, wherein the target site is an angiogenesis site.
 24. The method of claim 21, wherein said first moieties comprise receptors expressed on the surface of the target site.
 25. The method of claim 24, wherein said second moieties comprise ligands, aptamers or antibodies complementary to said receptors.
 26. The method of claim 21, wherein said fabricating comprises fabricating by a top-down technique.
 27. The method of claim 21, wherein the particle is a spheroidal particle and the one or more shape parameters is a spheroid aspect ratio.
 28. A particle fabricated according to the method of claim
 21. 29. A composition comprising a plurality of particles fabricated according to the method of claim
 21. 30. The composition of claim 29 comprising a suspension containing said plurality.
 31. A method comprising (A) selecting a target site having a surface, said surface has one or more first moieties; (B) selecting a volume; (C) selecting second moieties complementary to said first moiety; (D) determining a shape maximizing an adherence to the target site based on (i) the selected volume; (ii) parameters of interaction between the first moieties and the second moieties; and (iii) a density of the first moiety of the surface on the target site; (E) fabricating a particle, that has a shape, that is substantially the determined shape, and a volume, that is substantially the selected volume; and (F) disposing the second moieties on a surface of the particle.
 32. The method of claim 31, wherein (B) comprises selecting a target load of an active agent and determining the volume based on the target load and wherein the method further comprises loading the active agent in the particle.
 33. The method of claim 31, wherein the active agent is a therapeutic agent or an imaging agent.
 34. The method of claim 31, wherein the target site is a site in a vasculature.
 35. The method of claim 34, wherein the target site is an angiogenesis site.
 36. The method of claim 34, wherein the first moieties comprise receptors expressed on the surface of the target site.
 37. The method of claim 36, wherein the second moieties comprise ligands complementary to said receptors.
 38. The method of claim 31, wherein the said fabricating comprises fabricating by a top-down technique.
 39. The method of claim 31, wherein the particle is a spheroidal particle and wherein said determining the adherence maximizing shape comprises determining an adherence maximizing spheroid aspect ratio.
 40. A particle fabricated according to the method of claim
 31. 41. A composition comprising a plurality of particles fabricated according to the method of claim
 31. 